Here I will enclose what I learned in Second Language Acquisition (one of my most favorite subjects). Below are definitional terms by which you can be enlightened. Enjoy!
Key Terms
1.
Additive
Bilingualism
This
is a term derived from the concept proposed by Gardner
(2002) and Lambert (1974) which says that a language learner who acquires L2
would not interfere his or her L1 competence and his or her ethnic identity.
Most of students who learn second language are additive bilingual because they
think that their L1 is essential, so there is no possibility for them to replace L1 with L2.
2.
Audiolingual
Method
The
method in language acquisition developed from Behaviorism theory which
emphasizes the combination of linguistic and psychology concepts through
repetition as the approach to establish language skills as habit. Audiolingual method focuses more on oral
production habit in which the learners will be asked to repeatedly pronounce
the words being taught in the classroom. It is believed by the formation of
habit, the students will find automaticity of the target language attainment.
This method was then criticized by the coming of Naturalistic Approach of
language learning that cited the idea of applying natural acquisition of
language as the most effective way for someone to obtain language ability. This
theory backlashed the notions underpinning Audiolingual Method—in which that
method did not consider language learning as natural process for it should have
been perceived as how infant learners—like children—acquired their L1 in nature.
3.
Communication
Accommodation Theory
A theory that perceives a language used in
a communication either positively or negatively based on the attitude performed
by the communicants. The individuals communicating in a communication
legitimately cast their attitude which could be acted out in two different
concepts; convergence and divergence. The study of SLA puts the dominant
implication on convergence, which refers to the phenomenon in which a speaker
might adapt their utterances (including speed of speech, dictions, or
simplifiied sentences) while speaking to interlocutors who are deemed to have
lower proficiency of the language the speaker is speaking. The application of
this theory is found in a classroom of second language teaching in which most
of teachers try to adjust the intents conveyance with the students’ ability so
that the input and exposure of the target language produced will be
comprehensible. This theory accomodates the L2 learners’ affective condition
who might be at vivid anxiety. Krashen’s theory of affective filter is also
closely bounded with the emergence of Communication Accomodation Theory.
4.
Connectionism
Connectionism—also known as neural computing—is a term used in Thorndike’s theory of
learning which assumes that learning process happened through neural connection
reinforcement between stimuli and response. The frequent use of both stimuli
and response will strengthen the connection. Different parts of brain will work
simultaneously as the learning process happens. The process itself gets to be started once the brain receives elicitation
of imitated computational inputs of the target language. Connectionism firstly
developed by the enclosure of paradigm considering language acquisition a
brain-wired capability that every human being inevitably has. It broke the
theory by stating that genes in human even did not represent the data of
language existence in inheritance. Onwards, the connectionists started to construct
frameworks on how language acquisition possibly worked. The first hypothesis
was found in the implementation of Artificial Intelligence Style Theory which
was better elaborated in Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP).
5.
Contrastive
Analysis
Contrastive
analysis is an approach in acquiring second language by contrasting the
differences and similarities between L1 and L2 to see whether there are possible influences stemming from the learners’ vernacular which could make them either advantageous
or disadvantageous. The similarities between L1 and L2 is called
positive transfer which will help the learners acquiring L2, as the transfer will be found likely by the
learners. Positive transfer helps the learners to acquire the language much
easier because the elements of the transfer are familiar with their native
language. While the differences between L1 and L2 could also be a negative transfer when it happens to be totally different with
what is available in the learners’ L1. Contrastive Analysis has given a pedagogical implication that would make
teachers teaching second language benefit from knowing; the negative transfer
must be taken into account when planning a teaching since they will need to
concern more with those different aspect of languages and need to find a
helpful and creative teaching technique in order for students not to meet
confusion or errors (either developmental error or interference).
6.
False
Friends
Words
of two languages that are alike in forms and sounds therefore often interpreted
or expected to have same meanings by the language learners whereas they don’t.
This opportunity of overgeneralization oftentimes leads the language learners
to come to interference of language since they assume those two words probably
share the same meaning. False friends can also occur because of wrongly
interpreted pattern of word formation. For instance, when Indonesian recognizes
that English frequently employs morpheme -ion in words like organization,
formation and such, Indonesian may strongly tend to over-generalize how to
translate what they have in Indonesian is through the similar way as well. For
instance ‘prestasi’ for ‘prestation’.
7.
Fossilization
This
term associates the condition where L2 learners are in state of being unable to
expand their second language acquisition. This is a stable state in where learners cease their
interlanguage development before they reach target norms and eventually
be multilingual or native-like speakers. Fossilization also enlightens the
curiosity asking whether L2 has a probable influence in maintenance of mother
tongue of the learners. It is believed that L2 will never be able to invite
language loss to the primary language of multilingual speakers because their L1
has already been incepted in their plasticity of language in the brain. As
Birdsong (1999), Scovel (2000), and Singleton (2001) have stated in their
characteristics of different learners, second language learners may or may not
perform their attempt to acquire language which will lead them either to successful
acquirer or the failed ones, but never will they lose what they have acquired
born qualified.
8.
Information
Processing (IP)
A perspective in psychology which
perceives second language learning as mental processes that deals with
perception and the input of new information (the formation, organization and
regulation of internal or mental representations), as well as retrieval and
output strategies. McNeill (1965) argues that the information of L2 learning that adult learners encounter is in opposite
of how children acquire language. The process that adults take starts from
surface structure which then leads them to broader, deep structure (bottom-up
learning) whereas children get to
learn a language from its deepest structure to more complex structures onward
(top-down learning). This
approach prioritizes mental capacity requirements that make the learners notice
what they are learning from the target language.
9.
Input
Hypothesis
Input
hypothesis describes second language acquisition as a process of how the
learners can activate their LAD (Language Acquisition Device) with
comprehensible inputs which could be in the form of a language teaching
provided with media such as pictures or meaningful learning with
experiential-teaching technique.
10.
Instructional
Conversation Strategy
A language teaching strategy which includes
eliciting responses from students beyond the known answers and making authentic
dialogue between teacher and students to make the language use meaningful.
According to Krashen, this trick of teaching is served as the most appropriate
and effective way to impart exposures of target language to the learners so
that they can be acquainted more sufficiently with the language essentials
provided. Along with the turning point of second-language-learning phenomenon,
Krashen proposed Natural Order Hypothesis which hypothesizes that learning
language will always encounter the same order. He believed that learning a
second language has 4 stages. The second stage—early production stage—is exactly
where Instructional Conversation Strategy is suitable to be implemented.
11.
Instrumental
Motivation
Instrumental
motivation describes the determination in learning the second language to
fulfill particular reasons such as furthering a career, translation, gaining
employment, or college admissions. It is in line with the theory of attitudes
in language learning where instrumental motivation is the condition where the
learners learn language only as a way to get material needs, not becoming the
part of the culture related to the language such as interacting with the native
speakers of the language. Some
researches have been conducted to see which of the motivations—between
instrumental and integrative—that would advance students’ feasibility to
acquire a language, but the results were difficut to be made discrete as each
of them showed different findings with different interpretation. However, a
research done by Brown (1978) proved that an L2 learner who had gotten an
instrumental motivation had higher possibility to meet their own intrinsic
motivation of learning which oftentimes successfully led them to the
advancement of second language learning. It was caused by the unavoidable urge
to irrevocably acquire the language which otherwise would make the learners undergo
obstacles of their own interests or importances, for instance, if Japanese
students don’t study English hard, they will find it impossible for them to
study in America.
12.
Interference
One
of errors which is likely to occur when L2 learners retrieve a negative
transfer from L2 learning which is genuinely different from their vernacular.
Interference is a concept of
language barrier that is
identified when the utterances produced in an L2 appear to be inappropriately
influenced by the learners’ L1.
Based on this scope, the term model proposed
by Haugen refers to L2 and the replica refers
to the L1 are used. Interference is equal to overgeneralization referring to
errors in using an L2 for an effect of L1 a
priori uses. Interference occurs as an automatic transfer because of the
learners’ habit or because the two languages that are learned are not well
separated. Interference can be minimized by one of general means which leads to the
distinctiveness between the two words in different language associated to
particular environmental symbol. The separation of the arbitrary acquisition of
certain language will be done through the focus on contexts in which
interference is likely to occur. This badly-influential factor is specifically
analyzed along with the development of Contrastive Analysis—an approach to
SLA—proposed by Robert Lado.
13.
Interlanguage
(IL)
A linguistic approach to SLA promoted by
Larry Selinker (1972) which emphasis lays in the phase of connecting what language elements
and systems are obtained in L1 and how the target language works. While
doing so, learners may attain interim grammar that deals with resetting the learners’ parameters on the basis
of new input between the two languages. Learners need to do
this when they find that the language input of L2 they receive does not match
the setting of L1 to which they are accustomed. Interlanguage is deemed
as a process that takes place in the second phase of language development,
which is intermediate state. Some theorists believe that interlanguage has an
important role in Chomsky’s
theory of Universal Grammar and Parameter perspective—which portray language
learning as how L2 learners can adapt their orientation and perception of
language with the basis on how the target language is constituted. Weinrich (1953) has also declared that
interlanguage grammar development of a second language learner may be
accelerated in significance once they have themselves be in a knowledgable
learning strategy. This also makes interlanguage eligible to be defined as an
entrance of every non-native language learners to get an access to the target
language they intend to acquire.
14.
Lateralization
A
term used in psychology of SLA in which L2 learners use their brain to memorize
and keep the language system. The brain itself is categorized into two
different hemispheres; left and right. The left side of hemisphere functions as
the keeper of logical memory such as numbers, words and letters, meanwhile the
right side is employed to maintain memories, among others tones or music,
shapes and such. It is then strongly related to how the L2 learners are
sufficiently suggested to learn the target language in most effective way.
Language learning takes place in left hemisphere prior to the activation of right hemisphere that istriggered by the
meaningful memories of language use and visual experiences. This way,
production of language will occur afterwards.
15.
Markedness
Differentiation Theory
This
hypothesis born from Eckman’s (1977) womb of thoughts states that language has
its marked and unmarked structures. This is a form of elaborated extension of
how language learning is supposed to take place as what the prior approach—like
Contrastive Analysis—has tempted to highlight language distinctiveness. This
hypothesis tries to give positive transfer to language learners by categorizing
which language structure will be found more frequent to occur and normal to be
comprehended. The structure appears normal is labeled as ‘unmarked’ while the
less familiar and more complex ones are named ‘marked’. When L1 has marked
structures at a point and L2 has unmarked structures, then the speakers of L1
should acquire the unmarked structures of L2 faster than the L2 speakers should
acquire the marked structures of L1. This has a pedagogical implication of
second language teaching in which teachers must focus more on those marked
structures and find a way to make the input more comprehensible—as what Krashen
has suggested in his Monitor Model Theory.
16.
Parallel-distributed
processing (PDP)
One
of the connectionist approaches that theorizes processing as a result from
gaining frequency of input and nature of feedback. The process of processing
takes place in a network of nodes (or units) in the brain. Nodes notify
patterns of the input and as the learners are exposed more or less to the patterns,
it is believed that the association between nodes will be strengthened or
weakened. Ellis (2007) states that human neural apparatus is highly plastic in
its initial state, however the initial state of L2 learner is no longer a
plastic system for it has been already committed to L1 and its experience. This
phenomenon might cause the input to be blocked to penetrate to the nodes and to
end up not resulting in advancement at all.
17.
Social
Constructivism Theory
A
sociocultural approach which focuses on how cognitive and communicative aspects
are crucial to one and another, and how they can affect the process of
acquiring language. This approach is pioneer to be introduced by Lantolf and
Thorne (2007) who explain that SCT (Social-Cultural Theory) is grounded in a
perspective that does not separate the individuals from the social and, in
fact, argues that the individuals’ emergence of language communicative usage is
a fundamental nature of human being. It is also in line with former Output
Theory, brought to the surface by Swain (1985). This theory which was stemming
from Interaction Theory described that
language learning needs to make the learners fully aware of what they are
capable of saying with what they want to say. The evaluation they can make
towards their ability will trigger their learning even more advance and that
evaluation will be only possible to be done if they can perform the language
throughout the output they can produce. These theories are wrapped by Social
Contructivism theory which supports their beliefs to more feasible extents.
18.
Social
Distance
In
Environmentalist, social distance refers to the social proximity of two
cultures that come into contact with one other. Social distance matters
essentially because the languages along with their cultures must be seen
whether they are congruent/ similar or not. Social distance may appear either
positive or negative. When the distance between the learners and the exposures
of target language (for example its native speakers, culture understanding,
prestige and such) is greatly far, the learners may lack of motivation to
successfully acquire the target language. This will guide the students to the
failure of learning as what Seville-Troike called as saturation point—the
condition where the learners do not have motivation to move forward in learning
to attain more essentials of the target language.
19.
Tabula
Rasa
This
is a human behavior theory coming from John Locke, an English philosopher, who
sees human nature as a blank mental state who was born without any knowledge
about the world including language—even the mother language. What makes a human
become depends entirely on what exposures given by the environment. This theory
is supported by Skinner who claimed that children come into the world with a
tabula rasa which means that we can teach them anything including language by a
carefully designed program of step-by-step reinforcement. This can be done
continually until it becomes behavior.
20. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
An
idea theorized by Vygotsky (1978) that describes a theoretical framework for
teaching foreign language to children. This theory believes that children have
a particular area of potential
development where they can
achieve that potential only with assistance. ZPD is a phenomenon which describes what children can do
with guidance from knowledgable input, apart from what they can do unaided or what
they can impossibly do at all. ZPD is accompanied
by reciprocal teaching which is used to improve students’ ability with the
reduce of teachers’ presence in sequential steps. This method oftentimes
collaborates teachers and students to practice four key skills: summarizing,
questioning, clarifying and predicting.
References
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